Why it is required? If you want to set up your Linux box as a web hosting server for its users, you may need to give SFTP access. But they can get access to whole system Linux tree, just for reading but still very unsecure. So it is mandatory to lock them in their home directory.

There are many other applications, it’s just a common example, so lets start its configuration.

Linux Box Detail:

Its mine Linux Box, your Linux system may vary. Only thing to take care is the openssh-server version, because openssh-server-5.3p1 support SFTP chroot. Older version supports but its tricky, please let me k now if you want to know that too.

Operating System: CentOS 6.3/x86_64

Kernel Version: 2.6.32-279.19.1.el6/x86_64

Openssh Server Version: openssh-server-5.3p1-81.el6_3/x86_64

sshd Server Configuration:

Add the following tail output to your Linux box’s SSH

server configuration file /etc/ssh/sshd_config.

[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# tail -6 /etc/ssh/sshd_config
#Subsystem sftp /usr/libexec/openssh/sftp-server
Subsystem sftp internal-sftp
Match Group www-hosting
ChrootDirectory %h
ForceCommand internal-sftp
AllowTcpForwarding no

Then restart sshd service to enable this configuration.

[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo /etc/init.d/sshd restart

Create Chroot Users:

[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo mkdir /etc/skel/public_html
[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo groupadd www-hosting
[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo useradd -s /sbin/nologin -g www-hosting linuxexplore.com

Setting Permissions:

[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo chown root:www-hosting /home/linuxexplore.com
[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo chmod 755 /home/linuxexplore.com

That’s all now create multiple users for web hosting, and offer the secure sftp access to your customers.

Shell Script to Create Web Hosting Users:

#!/bin/bash
HOSTING_DIR="/etc/skel/public_html"
CHROOT_GRP="www-hosting"
USR_NAME="$1"

[ ! -d "$HOSTING_DIR" ] && mkdir -p $HOSTING_DIR
grep ^"${CHROOT_GRP}:" /etc/group || /usr/sbin/groupadd www-hosting
grep ^"${USR_NAMEP}:" /etc/passwd || /usr/sbin/useradd -s /sbin/nologin -g $CHROO_GRP $USR_NAME
chown root:$CHROOT_GRP /home/$USR_NAME
chmod 755 /home/$USR_NAME

Selinux Configuration:

Disable the selinux permanently or configure it for read write user’s home directory in SSH chroot.

[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo setsebool -P ssh_chroot_rw_homedirs on
[rahulpanwar@myhost ~]# sudo restorecon -R /home/$USERNAME

Troubleshooting

From: https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/SFTP-chroot

sshd[3505]: fatal: bad ownership or modes for chroot directory "/home/linuxexplore.com"

It’s ChrootDirectory ownership problem, sshd will reject sftp connections to accounts that are set to chroot into any directory that has ownership/permissions that sshd doesn’t consider secure. sshd’s apparently strict ownership/permissions requirements dictate that every directory in the chroot path must be owned by root and only writable for the owner. So, for example, if the chroot environment is in a user’s home directory both /home and /home/username must be owned by root and have permissions like 755 or 750 ( group ownership should allow user to access ).

If you are using sftp with public key check the following link:

http://www.centos.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=37903&forum=59

If chroot environment is in user’s home directory, make sure user have access to its home directory, or user would not be able to access its publickey, produce the error given in above CentOS forum link.

Windows uses FAT and NTFS as file systems, while Linux uses a variety of file systems.

Unlike Windows, Linux is bootable from a network drive.

In contrast to Windows, everything is either a file or a process in Linux. Please see one of my earlier post What “Everything Is a File” Means on Linux.

Linux has two kinds of major partitions called data partitions and swap partitions. Because of the existence of swap partitions, you never run out of memory in Linux (like in windows).

In terms of recovery tools, only a limited number of tools can be used on Windows, while there is a large number of UNIX based recovery tools available for Linux file systems.

From the author Nigel McFarlane:

Both Windows and Linux organize disk-based files into a hierarchy of directories. Such directories are usually called “folders” when viewed in a GUI. One whole hierarchy is called a “file system” on both platforms. The architecture of Windows and Linux file systems is similar in some points, but diverges greatly when tools are considered. Here’s a quick comparison.

On hardware derived from Intel or IBM PCs, both Windows and Linux use the Master Block Record/ Master Boot Record (MBR). That is the bit of disk used to boot the operating system and to state whether the disk is partitioned or not. On both Windows and Linux, it is common to have at most one file system per partition. That is about the end of the similarity.

Each Windows file system gets a drive letter, like “C:”. On Linux, each file system gets a device, like /dev/hda1 (“hard disk A part 1″), which is represented as a file. Such a file is a device file (since a disk is a device), hence the “dev” part of the path name. Also, the device file is not an ordinary text file, it is a “special file.” Since disks are block devices (unlike a serial mouse), such a file is fully described as a “block special device file.” The numbered part of the path can be a little weird to get right; it’s best to be guided by documentation there or extract the right name from a report.

On Windows, file systems can be FAT16, FAT32 or NTFS, to name a few. Recall FAT16 is the ancient standard responsible for Windows file names with the “8.3” file name length restriction. On Linux, filesystems can be “minix,” “ext,” or “ext2,” to name a few. Also, “minix” is an example of the ancient standard responsible for UNIX file names once being limited to 14 characters. Linux also has “msdos” and “vfat” file systems for compatibility with Windows and DOS, plus more.

Windows uses FORMAT.EXE to format a disk. Linux uses “mkfs” (“make file system”) in various specialist forms.

Each Windows file system has a File Allocation Table (FAT, VFAT, or similar) that states which disk blocks hold the topmost directory. On Linux, the equivalent on most filesystems is the superblock. A Linux file system has multiple copies of the superblock physically saved on the disk. This provides redundancy in case of a partial disk corruption. The superblock is just about always in memory on Linux; that is not the case for ancient DOS-like file systems. There are no special restrictions on files placed in the topmost directory on Linux, either.

On Windows, there is one drive letter per mounted file system: for example, C: for C: and D: for D:. On Linux there are no drive letters, so one file system is mounted on “/” and all other file systems are mounted on subdirectories of “/.” This arrangement is like the little-used MS-DOS command SUBST, or the NET USE command that supports Novell‘s NetWare. The equivalent Linux command is “mount.”

You can see all this at work on Linux, but for some of it you need to be logged in as root. Type “cat /etc/fstab” to see all the mountable devices, including floppy disks and CD players. Type “df” to see the devices currently mounted, and their free space. In the usual case you can even see the superblock: try “/sbin/dumpe2fs /dev/hda1” where hda1 comes from the output of “df.” The name “dumpe2fs” is a casualty of history; it replaces the older “dumpfs.” The information produced is really just for diagnostic purposes.

Mostly file systems work for you silently. If you want to dig into Linux further, then there are plenty of tools that can be used as inspection points.

About the author
Nigel McFarlane is an open source software analyst and technologist with a broad background in technology and software engineering. He has an extensive programming background and degrees in computer science and physics. His latest book is “Rapid Application Development with Mozilla” from Prentice Hall PTR.

Source:
http://searchopensource.techtarget.c…990200,00.html

Download the Beta 2

Beta 2 images can be downloaded from a location near you.
Note: The Ubuntu Desktop images are now bigger than a standard CD, and you should use a USB or DVD for installation. Some image consolidation has occurred as well.

You can download Beta 2 ISOs from:

http://releases.ubuntu.com/12.10/ (Ubuntu Desktop and Server)
http://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Ubuntu Cloud Server)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/netboot/12.10/ (Ubuntu Netboot)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/ubuntu-core/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Ubuntu Core)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/kubuntu/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Kubuntu)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/kubuntu-active/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Kubuntu Active)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/lubuntu/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Lubuntu)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/edubuntu/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Edubuntu DVD)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/ubuntustudio/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Ubuntu Studio)
http://cdimage.ubuntu.com/xubuntu/releases/12.10/beta-2/ (Xubuntu)

• Difficulty: Easy
• Application: KStars

You may already have played with KStars, but how about creating a KStars backdrop image that’s updated every time you start up?

KStars can be run with the –dump switch, which dumps out an image from your startup settings, but doesn’t load the GUI at all. You can create a script to run this and generate a desktop image, which will change every day (or you can just use this method to generate images).

Run KStars like this:

kstars --dump --width 1024 --height 768 --filename = ~/kstarsback.png

You can add this to a script in your ~/.kde/Autostart folder to be run at startup. Find the file in Konqueror, drag it to the desktop and select ‘Set as wallpaper’ to use it as a randomly generated backdrop.

Open an SVG directly

• Difficulty: Easy
• Application: Inkscape

You can run Inkscape from a shell and immediately edit a graphic directly from a URL. Just type:

inkscape http://www.somehost.com/graphic.svg

Remember to save it as something else though!

Editing without an editor

• Difficulty: Intermediate
• Application: Various

Very long files are often hard to manipulate with a text editor. If you need to do it regularly, chances are you’ll find it much faster to use some handy command-line tools instead, like in the following examples.

To print columns eg 1 and 3 from a file file1 into file2, we can use awk:

awk '{print $1, $3}' file1 > file2

To output only characters from column 8 to column 15 of file1, we can use cut:

cut -c 8-15 file1 > file2

To replace the word word1 with the word word2 in the file file1, we can use the sed command:

sed "s/word1/word2/g" file1 > file2

This is often a quicker way to get results than even opening a text editor.

Backup selected files only

• Difficulty: Intermediate
• Application: tar

Want to use tar to backup only certain files in a directory? Then you’ll want to use the -T flag as follows. First, create a file with the file you want to backup:

cat >> /etc/backup.conf
# /etc/passwd
# /etc/shadow
# /etc/yp.conf
# /etc/sysctl.conf
EOF

Then run tar with the -T flag pointing to the file just created:

tar -cjf bck-etc-`date +%Y-%m-%d`.tar.bz2 -T /etc/backup.conf

Now you have your backup.

Read more…….

If you are familiar with CentOS, you know that out of the box, it is not really designed as a desktop distribution. Stella changes all that, as it is primarily aimed at desktop users, while retaining the core enterprise features and capabilities of CentOS.

And you can see that just by looking at the package manager. The package categories tell you that everything you can find in CentOS is also available in Stella. Plus desktop applications that you will not find in any default installation of CentOS. For example, an application listed in the screen shot below, is ROSA Media Player (ROMP), the default media player in ROSA Desktop, a distribution based on Mandriva Linux.

Because it is loaded with desktop applications and media codecs not available in CentOS, you can play most audio and video file formats out of the box. Here it shows a favorite online video playing in Firefox.

The next few screen shots show what the desktop looks like and some of the applications accessible from the menu. This one shows installed Internet applications.

Installed Office applications.

Installed multimedia applications.

Updates manager.

Read full story.